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 Management of change

Analyse the ways in which resistance to change becomes evident within
organisations. What strategies can senior managers adopt to overcome such
resistance when implementing change programmes.


CONTENTS    Page

INTRODUCTION    1

WHY PEOPLE RESIST CHANGE    1
Fear of the unknown    1
Disrupted habits    2
Loss of face    2
Loss of confidence    3
Loss of control    3
Poor timing    4
Work overload    4
Lack of purpose    4

DEFENSE MECHANISMS    5
Overt resistance    5
Implicit resistance    5

SYMPTOMS OF RESISTANCE TO CHANGE    6
Aggression    6
Fantasy    6
Regression    6
Resignation/avoidance    7
Negativism    7
Compensation    7
Rationalisation    7
Projection     7

STRATEGIES TO REDUCE RESISTANCE    8
Change programme    9
Impact of change    9
Change mechanism    10
Change management    11
Education and communication    11
Participation    12
Facilitation and support    12
Negotiation    13
Manipulation and co-optation    13
Coercion    14

CONCLUSION    15

Bibliography and references    16



1.    INTRODUCTION

1.1    Change is the process of moving from one state to another state.
Just as moving house requires the massive packing of furniture and other
items, change requires just as much preparations to be successful.

1.2    Most people do not like change, we like things to remain the
same. Changes require more effort from us to adapt. Change threatens our
stability and security and we fear that we will not be able to cope with
the change. Resistance is the natural defense to such perceived threats.

2.    WHY PEOPLE RESIST CHANGE
2.1    To know the symptoms of resistance to change, we have to
understand why people resist change. Reasons can range from as trivial
(though not trivial to the person) as not knowing how to take a bus home
(in the instance of a shift in the office) to as serious as fearing the
loss of job or status.

2.1.1    Fear of the unknown; The person does not know what is happening
and why it is happening. Imagine a person walking down a street only to
have a electricity blackout. He panics for a moment, because he does not
know what had happened and he is afraid of being robbed or murdered in
the dark. Similarly, employees do not like to be kept in the dark. They
want to be kept informed of happenings, especially when it will affect
them, so that they can prepare themselves for any onslaught.

2.1.2    Disrupted habits: AYou can=t teach a old dog new tricks@ ring
true in some instances. Older employees especially who are set in their
ways get upset when they are told that they can no longer use the old
method of doing things. In the 1960s, the Singapore government advocated
family planning banned spitting in public areas. The older folks who were
brought up on the tradition that clearing phlegm is good for the lungs
got pretty upset.

2.1.3    Loss of face: The Chinese in Singapore are divided into various
communities depending on their forefathers= origins in China and the
dialect group. To unit the Chine, the Singapore government advocated the
use of Mandarin as a common language. Use of dialects was strongly
discouraged. Television shows and radio programmes in dialects were
Abanned@. This pretty much upset the older folks who felt that their old
traditions and culture were being Aerased away@, and that the Aold@ ways
were not the Agood@ ways.

2.1.4    Loss of confidence: The employee feel that he cannot perform just
as well under the new way of doing things. A typist who formerly could
type at 60wpm and now has to use the computer, is afraid that she cannot
type just as fast on the machine. In the 1960s, English was promoted as
the official language of Singapore. The older Chinese, who came to
Singapore in the first half of the century, were mainly uneducated. They
built up their businesses through hard work. Accounts were kept in Athe
head@ and credit was given on trust. They felt that they would not able
to cope just as well in the new English speaking environment.

2.1.5    Loss of control: The government=s population control policy
encourage the Singapore citizens to Astop at two@. Measures to discourage
having more children, such as higher accouchement fees for the third
child, low priority in education, etc. were implemented. Many couples
felt that they had no choice but to follow the policy. Their feeling was
of >things being done >to= you rather than >by= or >with= you.@.

2.1.6    Poor timing: In these times, when changes are happening
frequently, the employee will feel overwhelmed by the many changes and
also that things are moving too fast. Before he has learnt how to use
WordPerfect 5.1, Microsoft comes out with Microsoft Word 6.0 and he has
to re-learn again.

2.1.7    Work overload: With the tight labour shortage in Singapore, many
employees had Aenjoyed job enlargement@. Their energy is already consumed
by the additional workload, and they do not have spare energy, physical
or psychic to commit to the change.

2.1.8    Lack of purpose: To control traffic congestion on the East Coast
Expressway, the Communications Ministry had implemented the ARoad Pricing
Scheme@ (RPS), whereby motorists using the East Coast Expressway (ECP)
from 0730 hours to 1030 hours in the morning, have to pay a toll of
S$1.00. Many motorists see this as purposeless, as the ECP was built to
ease traffic congestion in the eastern part of the island. They do not
see any reason for the change and/or do not understand the benefits.

3.    DEFENSE MECHANISMS

3.1    Just as we resist physically when someone tries to assault us, we
use resistance as a defense mechanism, when we perceive any change as a
threat.  Resistance can be overt or implicit.

3.1.1    Overt resistance ) When resistance is overt and immediate, it is
easiest to dealt with, as the causes for the resistance is easily seen.
For instance, a change is proposed and employees respond by voicing
complaints, engaging in a work slowdown, threatening to go on strike, or
the like. Management will be able to formulate strategies to deal with
the root causes of complaints.

3.1.2    Implicit resistance ) Implicit resistance is more subtle; the
loss of loyalty to the organisation, loss of motivation to work,
increased errors or mistakes, increased absenteeism due to Asickness@ )
and hence more difficult to recognise.

3.1.3    Deferred reactions blur the link between the source of resistance
and reaction to it. A change may produce what appears to be only a
minimal reaction at the time it is initiated bur surfaces weeks, months
or even years later. Or a single change in and of itself has little
impact. But it becomes the Astraw that breaks the camel=s back@.

3.1.4    Reactions to change can build up and then explodes in some
response that seems totally out of proportion to the change it follows.
The resistance has merely been deferred and stockpiled. What surfaces is
a response to an accumulation of previous changes.

4.    SYMPTOMS OF RESISTANCE TO CHANGE

4.1    Symptoms to resistance can take the form of;

4.1.1    Aggression ) Showing hostility toward supervisor or fellow
employees through gestures, words, or even physical attacks.

4.1.2    Fantasy ) Day dreaming of another world where the change is
non-existent.

4.1.3    Regression )  Manifesting childlike behaviour such as crying,
pouting to attract attention in the hope that the change will be
abandoned by sympathetic superiors.

4.1.4    Resignation/avoidance ) Having excessive absenteeism or
tardiness, quitting the job or having a high sick-leave rate. The person
create absences from the place of change, in order to avoid dealing or
facing the change.

4.1.5    Negativism ) Putting up strong and irrational resistance to
accepting the suggestions of others, so as influence others into the same
thinking that the change is bad.

4.1.6    Compensation )  Exhibiting exaggerated behaviour such as using
big words, being bossy to show that he/she is not afraid of the change,
contrary to internal emotions.

4.1.7    Rationalisation)  Making excuses for one=s behaviour in order to
come to terms with one=s guilt.

4.1.8    Projection ) blaming others for the problem.


5.    STRATEGIES TO REDUCE RESISTANCE

5.1    Resistance to change is not always dysfunctional. It can provide
a vehicle for employees to release pent-up frustrations. Rather than let
those frustrations fester, overt resistance allows employees to bring
their feelings to the surface. Management can then address employee
concerns, help them understand the change better, and lessen its threat.

5.2    Employee resistance may also bring to light problems in a change
proposal that management had overlooked. In an odd way, employee
resistance is a form of checks-and-balances on management and acts to
preserve the organisation=s culture.

5.3    Change, particularly if it effects will be tremendous and/or wide
ranging should be properly planned. In planning a change, management
should consider;

5.3.1    the impact of change
5.3.2    change management and approaches that can be used to overcome
resistance and gain commitment to change

5.4    Change programme

5.4.1    Senior management should then draw up a programme for the change;

5.4.1.1    setting goals and defining the new state required after the
change
5.4.1.2    analysing the present conditions in relation to the goals.
5.4.1.3    defining the transitional activities and commitments required to
achieve the new state.
5.4.1.4    developing strategies and action plans for managing the
transition. This involve identifying the forces resistant to change and
the reasons for resistance.
5.4.1.5    identifying a Achange agent@ to facilitate the change.

5.5    Impact of change

5.5.1    To understand the impact of the change, it is essential for
senior management to Acome off their high horses@ and listen to the
ground. Management can initiate discussion with trade unions and obtain
their feedback and inputs on any proposed changes, before implementation.
Union representatives, having stronger credibility with the members
(employees) will also be the best person(s) to garner support for the
change. Management have to  identify the perceived or real negative
consequences of the change.

5.6    Change mechanism

5.6.1    Reducing resistance to change can best be understood by
considering the complexity inherent in the change process. Successful
change requires unfreezing the status quo, moving to a new state and
refreezing the change to make it permanent.

5.6.2    According to Lewin, the basic mechanism for managing change is;

5.6.2.1    unfreezing - changing the present state which supports existing
behaviours and attitudes. This process must also consider the perceived
threats of any change (as earlier discussed) and the need to motivate
people to achieve the new state by accepting the change.

5.6.2.2    Changing - developing new attitudes and responses.
5.6.2.3    Refreezing - stabilising the change.

5.7    Change management

5.8    The are many styles of managing change and reducing resistance to
change, include;

5.8.1    Education and communication ) Resistance can be reduced through
communicating with employees to help them see the logic of a change. This
tactic basically assume that the source of resistance lies in
misinformation of poor communication. If employees receive the full facts
and get misunderstandings cleared up, resistance will subside. However
the management-employee relations have to be characterised by trust and
credibility. If these conditions do not exist, the change is unlikely to
succeed. The time and effort that this tactic involves must be considered
against its advantages, particularly when the change affects a large
number of people.

5.8.2    Participation )  It is difficult for individuals to resist a
change decision in which they participated. Prior to making a change,
those opposed to it can be brought into the change process. Assuming that
the participants have the expertise to make a meaningful contribution,
their involvement can reduce resistance, obtain commitment, and increase
the quality of the change decision. However, against these advantages are
the potential for a poor solution and great time consumption.

5.8.3    Facilitation and support ) Change agents can offer a range of
supportive efforts to reduce resistance. When employee fear and anxiety
are high, employee counselling and therapy, new skills training, or a
short paid leave of absence may facilitate adjustment. The drawback is
that as with the others, its is time consuming,. It is also expensive and
its implementation offers no assurance of success.

5.8.4    Negotiation  ) Another way for the change agent to deal with
potential resistance to change is to exchange something of value for a
lessening of the resistance. Example, the resistance is centred in a few
powerful individuals, a specific reward package can be negotiated that
will meet their needs. Negotiation as a tactic may be necessary when
resistance comes from a powerful source. Yet one cannot ignore its
potentially high costs. There is also the risk that once a change agent
negotiates to avoid resistance, he/she is open to the possibility of
being blackmailed by other individuals in positions of power.

5.8.5    Manipulation and co-optation  ) Manipulation refers to overt
influence attempts. Twisting and distorting facts to make them appear
more attractive, withholding undesirable information, or creating false
rumours to get employees to accept a change are all examples of
manipulation. If management threatens to close down a particular
manufacturing plant if that plant=s employees fail to accept an across
the board pay cut, and if the threat is equally untrue, management is
using manipulation. Co-optation on the other hand, is a form of both
manipulation and participation. It seeks to Abuy off@ the leaders of a
resistance group by giving them a key role in the change decision. The
leaders= advice is sought not to make a better decision, but to get their
endorsement. Both manipulation and co-optation are relatively inexpensive
and easy ways to get the support of adversaries, but the tactics can
backfire if the targets become aware that they are being tricked or used.
Once discovered, the change agent=s credibility may drop to zero.

5.8.6    Coercion  ) The application of direct threats of force on the
resisters. Examples of coercion, include pay cuts, threats of transfers,
loss of promotions, negative performance evaluations or a poor letter of
recommendation. The advantages and disadvantages are similar to those for
manipulation and co-optation.

5.9    If resistance is extremely high, management may have to resort to
both reducing resistance and increasing the attractiveness of the
alternative if the unfreezing is to be successful.


CONCLUSION

6.    Assuming that the change has been implemented, if it is to be
successful, the new situation needs to be refrozen so that it can be
sustained over time. Unless this step is taken, there is a high chance
that the change will be short lived and employees will attempt to revert
to the previous equilibrium state. The objective of refreezing then is to
stabilise the new situation by balancing the driving and restraining
forces.


Bibliography and references

1.    Werther Jr, William B & and Davis Keith (1985)
Personnel Management And Human Resources, 2nd edition
McGraw Hill International, Singapore.

2.    Sherman, Arthur W Jr, Bohlander, George W. and Chruden,
Herbert J. (1988)
Managing Human Resources, 8th edition
SouthWestern Publishing Co, USA.

3.    Robbins, Stephen, P. Robbins (1989)
Organisational behaviour (concepts, controversies and applications) 4th
 edition
Prentice-Hall of India, India

4.    Stoner, A. F. James (1988)
Management 4th edition
Prentice Hall international, Inc., USA.

5.    Clark, Liz (1994)
The essence of change
Prentice Hall international, Inc., UK.

6.    Armstrong, Michael (1993)
A Handbook of Management Techniques 2nd Edition
Nichols Publishing Comoany, New Jersey.

7.    Armstrong, Michael (1991)
A Handbook of Personnel Practices 4th Edition
Kogan Page Limited, USA.

8.    Chruden, Herbet J and Sherman Jr, Arthur W. (1976)
Personnel Management 5th Edition
South Western Publishing Company, USA.

9.    Durphy, D.C (1981)
Organisational Change by choice
McGraw Hill Book Co, Sydney



10.    Lippitt, G.L., Langeseth, P. and Mossop J (1986)
Implementing Organisational Change
Josey-Bass Publishers, San Francisco, London

11.    Leigh, A. (1988)
Effective Change: Twenty ways to make it happen
Institute of Personnel Management, UK